This article is about a group of green algae. For the genus with the common name 'spider plant', see
Chlorophytum .
Phylum of green algae
Chlorophyta or Prasinophyta is a taxon of green algae informally called chlorophytes .[6] The name is used in two very different senses, so care is needed to determine the use by a particular author. In older classification systems, it refers to a highly paraphyletic group of all the green algae within the green plants (Viridiplantae ) and thus includes about 7,000 species [7] [8] of mostly aquatic photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms. In newer classifications, it refers to the sister clade of the streptophytes /charophytes . The clade Streptophyta consists of the Charophyta in which the Embryophyta (land plants) emerged.[9] [10] In this latter sense the Chlorophyta includes only about 4,300 species.[4] About 90% of all known species live in freshwater.[11]
Like the land plants (embryophytes : bryophytes and tracheophytes ), green algae (chlorophytes and charophytes besides embryophytes) contain chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b and store food as starch [7] in their plastids .
With the exception of Palmophyllophyceae , Trebouxiophyceae , Ulvophyceae and Chlorophyceae , which show various degrees of multicellularity, all the Chlorophyta lineages are unicellular.[12] Some members of the group form symbiotic relationships with protozoa , sponges, and cnidarians. Others form symbiotic relationships with fungi to form lichens , but the majority of species are free-living. Some conduct sexual reproduction, which is oogamous or isogamous . All members of the clade have motile flagellated swimming cells.[13] While most species live in freshwater habitats and a large number in marine habitats , other species are adapted to a wide range of land environments. For example, Chlamydomonas nivalis , which causes Watermelon snow , lives on summer alpine snowfields. Others, such as Trentepohlia species, live attached to rocks or woody parts of trees. Monostroma kuroshiense , an edible green alga cultivated worldwide and most expensive among green algae, belongs to this group.
Ecology [ ]
Species of Chlorophyta (treated as what is now considered one of the two main clades of Viridiplantae ) are common inhabitants of marine, freshwater and terrestrial environments.[14] [15] Several species have adapted to specialised and extreme environments, such as deserts, arctic environments, hypersaline habitats, marine deep waters, deep-sea hydrothermal vents and habitats that experiences extreme changes in temperature, light and salinity.[16] [17] [18] [19] Some groups, such as the Trentepohliales are exclusively found on land.[20] Several species of Chlorophyta live in symbiosis with a diverse range of eukaryotes , including fungi (to form lichens ), ciliates , forams , cnidarians and molluscs .
[15] Some species of Chlorophyta are heterotrophic , either free-living or parasitic .[21] [22] Others are mixotrophic bacterivores through phagocytosis .[23] Two common species of the heterotrophic green alga Prototheca are pathogenic and can cause the disease protothecosis in humans and animals.[24]
Classifications [ ]
Characteristics used for the classification of Chlorophyta are: type of zoid , mitosis (karyokynesis), cytokinesis , organization level, life cycle , type of gametes , cell wall polysaccharides [25] and more recently genetic data .
Phylogeny [ ]
A newer proposed classification follows Leliaert et al. 2011[18] and modified with Silar 2016,[26] Leliaert 2016[27] and Lopes dos Santos et al. 2017[28] for the green algal clades and Novíkov & Barabaš-Krasni 2015[29] for the land plants clade. Sánchez-Baracaldo et al. is followed for the basal clades.[30] [31] [32]
A 2020 paper places the "Prasinodermophyta" (i.e. Prasinodermophyceae + Palmophyllophyceae ) as the basal Viridiplantae clade.[33]
Leliaert et al . 2012 [ ]
Simplified phylogeny of the Chlorophyta, according to Leliaert et al . 2012.[15] Note that many algae previously classified in Chlorophyta are placed here in Streptophyta.
Pombert et al . 2005 [ ]
A possible classification when Chlorophyta refers to one of the two clades of the Viridiplantae is shown below.[34]
Lewis & McCourt 2004 [ ]
Division Chlorophyta (green algae sensu stricto)
Subdivision Chlorophytina
Division Charophyta (charophyte algae and embryophytes)
Hoek, Mann and Jahns 1995 [ ]
Classification of the Chlorophyta, treated as all green algae, according to Hoek, Mann and Jahns 1995.[7]
Class Prasinophyceae (orders Mamiellales , Pseudocourfeldiales , Pyramimonadales , Chlorodendrales )
Class Chlorophyceae (orders Volvocales [including the Tetrasporales ], Chlorococcales , Chaetophorales , Oedogoniales )
Class Ulvophyceae (orders Codiolales , Ulvales )
Class Cladophorophyceae (order Cladophorales )
Class Bryopsidophyceae (orders Bryopsidales , Halimedales )
Class Dasycladophyceae (order Dasycladales )
Class Trentepohliophyceae (order Trentepohliales )
Class Pleurastrophyceae (order Pleurastrales )
Incertae sedis (order Prasiolales )
Class Klebsormidiophyceae (orders Klebsormidiales , Coleochaetales )
Class Zygnematophyceae (order Zygnematales , Desmidiales )
Class Charophyceae (order Charales )
In a note added in proof, an alternative classification is presented for the algae of the class Chlorophyceae:
Bold and Wynne 1985 [ ]
Classification of the Chlorophyta and Charophyta according to Bold and Wynne 1985.[36]
Mattox & Stewart 1984 [ ]
Classification of the Chlorophyta according to Mattox & Stewart 1984:[35]
Fott 1971 [ ]
Classification of the Chlorophyta according to Fott 1971.[7] : 483
Round 1971 [ ]
Classification of the Chlorophyta and related algae according to Round 1971.[37]
"green algae "
Euglenophyta
Prasinophyta
Charophyta
Chlorophyta
Zygnemaphyceae (= Conjugatophyceae ; orders Mesotaeniales , Zygnematales , Gonatozygales , Desmidiales )
Oedogoniophyceae (order Oedogoniales )
Bryopsidophyceae
Chlorophyceae
orders Chlamydomonadales , Volvocales , Polyblepharidales , Tetrasporales , Chlorodendrales , Chlorosarcinales , Chlorococcales
orders Ulotrichales , Codiolales , Ulvales , Prasiolales , Cylindrocapsales , Microsporales
orders Chaetophorales , Coleochaetales , Trentepohliales , Pleurococcales , Ulvellales
Smith 1938 [ ]
Classification of the Chlorophyta according to Smith 1938:
Research and discoveries [ ]
In February 2020, the fossilized remains of green algae, named Proterocladus antiquus were discovered in the northern province of Liaoning , China.[38] At around a billion years old, it is believed to be one of the oldest examples of a multicellular chlorophyte.[39]
References [ ]
^ Reichenbach HG (1828). Conspectus Regni Vegetabilis . p. 23.
^ Pascher A (1914). "Über Flagellaten und Algen" . Berichte der Deutschen Botanischen Gesellschaft . 32 : 136–160.
^ Adl SM, Simpson AG, Farmer MA, Andersen RA, Anderson OR, Barta JR, et al. (2005). "The new higher level classification of eukaryotes with emphasis on the taxonomy of protists" . The Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology . 52 (5): 399–451. doi :10.1111/j.1550-7408.2005.00053.x . PMID 16248873 . S2CID 8060916 .
^ a b Guiry MD, Guiry GM (2011). "AlgaeBase : Chlorophyta" . World-wide electronic publication, National University of Ireland, Galway. Retrieved 2011-07-26 .
^ Papenfuss GF (1955). "The Classification of the Algae" . A century of progress in the natural sciences, 1853-1953 . California Academy of Sciences.
^ Rockwell NC, Martin SS, Li FW, Mathews S, Lagarias JC (May 2017). "The phycocyanobilin chromophore of streptophyte algal phytochromes is synthesized by HY2" . The New Phytologist . 214 (3): 1145–1157. doi :10.1111/nph.14422 . PMC 5388591 . PMID 28106912 .
^ a b c d van den Hoek C, Mann DG, Jahns HM (1995). Algae An Introduction to Phycology . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-30419-1 .
^ "Major Algae Phyla - Table - MSN Encarta" . Archived from the original on 2009-10-29.
^ Lewis LA, McCourt RM (October 2004). "Green algae and the origin of land plants". American Journal of Botany . 91 (10): 1535–56. doi :10.3732/ajb.91.10.1535 . PMID 21652308 .
^ Becker B, Marin B (May 2009). "Streptophyte algae and the origin of embryophytes" . Annals of Botany . 103 (7): 999–1004. doi :10.1093/aob/mcp044 . PMC 2707909 . PMID 19273476 .
^ Lee, Robert Edward (2018). Chlorophyta (Chapter 5) - Phycology - Cambridge University Press . doi :10.1017/9781316407219 . ISBN 9781316407219 .
^ Umen JG (October 2014). "Green algae and the origins of multicellularity in the plant kingdom" . Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology . 6 (11): a016170. doi :10.1101/cshperspect.a016170 . PMC 4413236 . PMID 25324214 .
^ Kapraun DF (April 2007). "Nuclear DNA content estimates in green algal lineages: chlorophyta and streptophyta" . Annals of Botany . 99 (4): 677–701. doi :10.1093/aob/mcl294 . PMC 2802934 . PMID 17272304 .
^ Graham LE, Graham JM, Wilcox LW (2009) Algae . 2nd Edition. Benjamin Cummings (Pearson), San Francisco, CA
^ a b c Leliaert F, Smith DR, Moreau H, Herron MD, Verbruggen H, Delwiche CF, De Clerck O (2012). "Phylogeny and molecular evolution of the green algae" (PDF) . Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences . 31 : 1–46. doi :10.1080/07352689.2011.615705 . S2CID 17603352 .
^ Lewis LA, Lewis PO (December 2005). "Unearthing the molecular phylodiversity of desert soil green algae (Chlorophyta)" . Systematic Biology . 54 (6): 936–47. doi :10.1080/10635150500354852 . PMID 16338765 .
^ De Wever A, Leliaert F, Verleyen E, Vanormelingen P, Van der Gucht K, Hodgson DA, Sabbe K, Vyverman W (October 2009). "Hidden levels of phylodiversity in Antarctic green algae: further evidence for the existence of glacial refugia" . Proceedings. Biological Sciences . 276 (1673): 3591–9. doi :10.1098/rspb.2009.0994 . PMC 2817313 . PMID 19625320 .
^ a b Leliaert F, Verbruggen H, Zechman FW (September 2011). "Into the deep: new discoveries at the base of the green plant phylogeny". BioEssays . 33 (9): 683–92. doi :10.1002/bies.201100035 . PMID 21744372 . S2CID 40459076 .
^ Foflonker F, Ananyev G, Qiu H, Morrison A, Palenik B, Dismukes GC, Bhattacharya D (June 2016). "The unexpected extremophile: Tolerance to fluctuating salinity in the green alga Picochlorum" . Algal Research . 16 : 465–472. doi :10.1016/j.algal.2016.04.003 .
^ López-Bautista JM, Rindi F, Guiry MD (July 2006). "Molecular systematics of the subaerial green algal order Trentepohliales: an assessment based on morphological and molecular data" . International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology . 56 (Pt 7): 1709–15. doi :10.1099/ijs.0.63990-0 . PMID 16825655 .
^ Joubert JJ, Rijkenberg FH (1971). "Parasitic green algae". Annu. Rev. Phytopathol . 9 : 45–64. doi :10.1146/annurev.py.09.090171.000401 .
^ Nedelcu AM (December 2001). "Complex patterns of plastid 16S rRNA gene evolution in nonphotosynthetic green algae". Journal of Molecular Evolution . 53 (6): 670–9. Bibcode :2001JMolE..53..670N . doi :10.1007/s002390010254 . PMID 11677627 . S2CID 21151223 .
^ Anderson, R.; Charvet, S.; Hansen, P. J. (2018). "Mixotrophy in Chlorophytes and Haptophytes—Effect of Irradiance, Macronutrient, Micronutrient and Vitamin Limitation - NCBI - NIH" . Frontiers in Microbiology . 9 : 1704. doi :10.3389/fmicb.2018.01704 . PMC 6080504 . PMID 30108563 .
^ Tartar A, Boucias DG, Adams BJ, Becnel JJ (January 2002). "Phylogenetic analysis identifies the invertebrate pathogen Helicosporidium sp. as a green alga (Chlorophyta)" . International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology . 52 (Pt 1): 273–9. doi :10.1099/00207713-52-1-273 . PMID 11837312 .
^ Lobban CS, Wynne MJ (1981). The Biology of Seaweeds . Botanical Monograph Series 17. University of California Press . p. 88. ISBN 9780520045859 .
^ Silar, Philippe (2016), "Protistes Eucaryotes: Origine, Evolution et Biologie des Microbes Eucaryotes" , HAL Archives-ouvertes : 1–462
^ Leliaert F, Tronholm A, Lemieux C, Turmel M, DePriest MS, Bhattacharya D, Karol KG, Fredericq S, Zechman FW, Lopez-Bautista JM (May 2016). "Chloroplast phylogenomic analyses reveal the deepest-branching lineage of the Chlorophyta, Palmophyllophyceae class. nov" . Scientific Reports . 6 (1): 25367. Bibcode :2016NatSR...625367L . doi :10.1038/srep25367 . PMC 4860620 . PMID 27157793 .
^ Lopes Dos Santos A, Pollina T, Gourvil P, Corre E, Marie D, Garrido JL, Rodríguez F, Noël MH, Vaulot D, Eikrem W (October 2017). "Chloropicophyceae, a new class of picophytoplanktonic prasinophytes" . Scientific Reports . 7 (1): 14019. Bibcode :2017NatSR...714019L . doi :10.1038/s41598-017-12412-5 . PMC 5656628 . PMID 29070840 .
^ Novikoff A, Barabasz-Krasny B (2015). Modern plant systematics . Liga-Pres. p. 685. doi :10.13140/RG.2.1.4745.6164 . ISBN 978-966-397-276-3 .
^ Sánchez-Baracaldo P, Raven JA, Pisani D, Knoll AH (September 2017). "Early photosynthetic eukaryotes inhabited low-salinity habitats" . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America . 114 (37): E7737–E7745. doi :10.1073/pnas.1620089114 . PMC 5603991 . PMID 28808007 .
^ Gitzendanner MA, Soltis PS, Wong GK, Ruhfel BR, Soltis DE (March 2018). "Plastid phylogenomic analysis of green plants: A billion years of evolutionary history" . American Journal of Botany . 105 (3): 291–301. doi :10.1002/ajb2.1048 . PMID 29603143 .
^ Rockwell NC, Martin SS, Li FW, Mathews S, Lagarias JC (May 2017). "The phycocyanobilin chromophore of streptophyte algal phytochromes is synthesized by HY2" . The New Phytologist . 214 (3): 1145–1157. doi :10.1111/nph.14422 . PMC 5388591 . PMID 28106912 .
^ Li L, Wang S, Wang H, Sahu SK, Marin B, Li H, et al. (September 2020). "The genome of Prasinoderma coloniale unveils the existence of a third phylum within green plants" . Nature Ecology & Evolution . 4 (9): 1220–1231. doi :10.1038/s41559-020-1221-7 . PMC 7455551 . PMID 32572216 .
^ Pombert JF, Otis C, Lemieux C, Turmel M (September 2005). "The chloroplast genome sequence of the green alga Pseudendoclonium akinetum (Ulvophyceae) reveals unusual structural features and new insights into the branching order of chlorophyte lineages" . Molecular Biology and Evolution . 22 (9): 1903–18. doi :10.1093/molbev/msi182 . PMID 15930151 .
^ a b c d e Mattox KR, Stewart KD, et al. (The Systematics Association) (1984). "Classification of the green algae: a concept based on comparative cytology.". In Irvine DE, John DM (eds.). The systematics of Green Algae . Vol. 27. London: Academic Press. pp. 29–72.
^ Bold HC, Wynne MJ (1985). Introduction to the algae : structure and reproduction (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-477746-7 .
^ Round FE (1971). "The taxonomy of the Chlorophyta, 2" . Br. Phycol. J . 6 (2): 235–264. doi :10.1080/00071617100650261 .
^ McCall R (2020-02-24). "Billion-year-old green algae found in China is the oldest ever discovered" . Newsweek . Retrieved 2020-02-25 .
^ Sandhya Ramesh (2020-02-25). "Scientists discover world's oldest green algae fossil in China" . ThePrint . Retrieved 2020-02-25 .
Further reading [ ]
Burrows EM (1991). Seaweeds of the British Isles . Vol. 2 (Chlorophyta). London: Natural History Museum. ISBN 978-0-565-00981-6 .
Lewis LA, McCourt RM (October 2004). "Green algae and the origin of land plants". American Journal of Botany . 91 (10): 1535–56. doi :10.3732/ajb.91.10.1535 . PMID 21652308 .
Pickett-Heaps JD (1975). Green Algae. Structure, Reproduction and Evolution in Selected Genera . Stamford, CT: Sinauer Assoc. p. 606.
Extant
life phyla/divisions by domain